The present invention relates generally to the aging of proteins resulting from their reaction with glucose and other reducing sugars, and more particularly to the inhibition of the reaction of nonenzymatically glycosylated proteins and the often resultant formation of advanced glycosylation endproducts and cross-links.
The reaction between glucose and proteins has been known for some time. Its earliest manifestation was in the appearance of brown pigments during the cooking of food, which was identified by Maillard in 1912, who observed that glucose or other reducing sugars react with amino acids to form adducts that undergo a series of dehydrations and rearrangements to form stable brown pigments. Maillard, C.R. Acad. Sci., 154, pp. 66-68, (1912). Further studies have suggested that stored and heat treated foods undergo nonenzymatic browning as a result of the reaction between glucose and the polypeptide chain, and that the proteins are resultingly cross-linked and correspondingly exhibit decreased bioavailability.
This reaction between reducing sugars and food proteins was found to have its parallel in vivo. Thus, the nonenzymatic reaction between glucose and the free amino groups on proteins to form a stable, 1-deoxyketosyl adduct, known as the Amadori product, has been shown to occur with hemoglobin, wherein a rearrangement of the amino terminal of the beta-chain of hemoglobin by reaction with glucose, forms the adduct known as hemoglobin A.sub.1c. The reaction has also been found to occur with a variety of other body proteins, such as lens crystallins, collagen and nerve proteins. See Bunn et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 67, pp. 103-109 (1975); Koenig et al., J. Biol. Chem., 252, pp. 2992-2997 (1977); Monnier et al., in Maillard Reaction in Food and Nutrition, ed. Waller, G. A., American Chemical Society, 215, pp.431-448 (1983); and Monnier and Cerami, Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 11, pp. 431-452 (1982).
Moreover, brown pigments with spectral and fluorescent properties similar to those of late-stage Maillard products have also been observed in vivo in association with several long-lived proteins, such as lens proteins and collagen from aged individuals. An age-related linear increase in pigment was observed in human dura collagen between the ages of 20 to 90 years. See, Monnier et al., Science, 211, pp. 491-493 (1981); Monnier et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 760, pp. 97-103 (1983); and, Monnier et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 81, pp. 583-587 (1984). Interestingly, the aging of collagen can be mimicked in vitro by the cross-linking induced by glucose; and the capture of other proteins and the formation of adducts by collagen, also noted, is theorized to occur by a cross-linking reaction, and is believed to account for the observed accumulation of albumin and antibodies in kidney basement membrane. See, Brownlee et al, J. Exp. Med., 158, pp. 1739-1744 (1983); and Kohn et al., Diabetes, 33, No. 1, pp. 57-59 (1984).
In U.S. Pat. No. 4,758,583, a method and associated agents were disclosed that served to inhibit the formation of advanced glycosylation endproducts by reacting with the early glycosylation product that results from the original reaction between the target protein and glucose. Accordingly, inhibition was postulated to take place as the reaction between the inhibitor and the early glycosylation product appeared to interrupt the subsequent reaction of the glycosylated protein with additional protein material to form the cross-linked late stage product. One of the agents identified as an inhibitor was aminoguanidine, and the results of further testing have borne out its efficacy in this regard.
While the success that has been achieved with aminoguanidine and similar compounds is promising, a need continues to exist to identify and develop additional inhibitors that broaden the availability and perhaps the scope of this potential activity and its diagnostic and therapeutic utility.